W1B. Principles of Effective Writing

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1. Summary

1.1 Be Formal

Formal academic writing is characterized by an objective, professional, and impersonal tone. The goal is to present information and arguments in a clear and respectful manner, avoiding the casualness of everyday conversation. This involves deliberate choices in vocabulary, grammar, and punctuation.

1.1.1 Avoid Contracted Forms

Contractions are shortened forms of words where an apostrophe replaces one or more letters (e.g., don't, isn't, wasn't). These are standard in spoken language but are considered too informal for academic work. Always write out the full words to maintain a formal tone. For example, instead of writing “The data wasn’t conclusive,” you should write “The data was not conclusive.”

1.1.2 Avoid Spoken Language

Academic writing requires more precise and formal vocabulary than conversational language. Avoid using slang, colloquialisms, or overly simple words. For instance, instead of saying “The results were pretty good,” a more formal alternative would be “The results were encouraging.” Similarly, replace vague, informal quantities like “a huge number of connections” with the more specific and formal term “numerous connections.”

1.1.3 Avoid Punctuation Showing Attitude

Punctuation marks like exclamation points convey emotion (e.g., surprise, excitement), which is generally inappropriate for objective academic writing. The focus should be on the factual presentation of information. Instead of writing “Turnout was less than 20 percent!”, you can convey the same sense of surprise through careful word choice, such as “Surprisingly, turnout in the election was less than 20 percent.”

1.2 Be Concise

Conciseness is the art of conveying your message using the fewest words necessary without sacrificing clarity or completeness. Wordy and convoluted sentences can obscure your main points. Streamlining your writing makes it more powerful and easier for the reader to understand.

1.2.1 Avoid Phrasal Verbs

A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and a preposition or adverb (e.g., bring up, look into, go on). While common in speech, they can be informal or ambiguous. Whenever possible, replace them with a single, more formal verb. For example, instead of “The committee brought up this issue,” use “The committee raised this issue.”

1.2.2 Avoid Negatives

Sentences written in the positive form are often clearer and more direct than those written in the negative. Unnecessary negative constructions can make sentences more complex. For example, “not many” can be simplified to “few,” and “did not accept” can be written more directly as “rejected.”

1.2.3 Avoid Redundant Pairs

Redundant pairs are phrases that use two words with the same meaning. This adds unnecessary wordiness. For example, in “first and foremost,” both words mean the first in a series, so using just “First” is more concise. Other examples include “any and all” (use “any”) and “each and every” (use “each”).

1.2.4 Avoid Redundant Modifiers

A redundant modifier is an adverb or adjective that repeats an idea already contained within the word it modifies. For example, since finish implies completion, the phrase “completely finish” is redundant; simply use “finish.” Likewise, “basic fundamentals” is redundant because fundamentals are inherently basic; use “fundamentals.”

1.2.5 Avoid Metaconcepts

Metaconcepts are abstract nouns that describe concepts about concepts (e.g., process, strategy, approach, framework). These words can often be removed to make a sentence more direct without losing meaning. For instance, “The re-factoring strategy seemed to be ineffective” can be streamlined to “Re-factoring seemed to be ineffective.” Similarly, “The process of data generation is explained” is more direct as “Data generation is explained.”

1.3 Be Precise

Precision means choosing the exact word to convey your intended meaning. It involves eliminating ambiguity and vagueness, ensuring that your reader understands your points exactly as you intend them.

1.3.1 Avoid Vague Words

Words like good, bad, thing, and big are subjective and lack specific meaning. In an academic context, you must use more descriptive and objective language. Instead of stating “The device performance is bad,” provide a more specific critique like “The device performance is substandard.” Instead of “This design is good,” explain why: “This design is effective.”

1.3.2 Use Complete Lists

In formal writing, avoid using abbreviations like “etc.” (et cetera) when presenting a complete, finite list. Using “etc.” can create ambiguity because the reader may not know what other items the list includes. For example, instead of “The periodic table divides elements into metals, non-metals, etc.,” you should write out the full list: “The periodic table divides elements into metals, non-metals, and semi-metals or metalloids.” The use of “etc.” is only appropriate when providing a few examples from a much larger, open-ended set.

1.4 Be Cautious (Hedging)

Academic knowledge is constantly evolving, and very few claims are absolutely certain. Cautious language, or hedging, is the practice of qualifying your statements to reflect the level of certainty. It shows that you are aware of the limitations of your claims and is a hallmark of credible academic writing.

1.4.1 Avoid Generalizations

Sweeping statements using absolute words like everyone, always, or never are risky because a single counterexample can prove them false. It is more accurate and defensible to use qualified language. Instead of “Everyone has access to the Internet nowadays,” a more accurate statement is “Internet access is widespread nowadays.”

1.4.2 Avoid Emotions

Academic arguments should be based on logic and evidence, not personal feelings. Emotionally charged words introduce bias and weaken the objectivity of your writing. For example, calling an idea “stupid” is unprofessional. A more academic approach would be to state, “It is debatable to think that economic means can solve these problems.”

1.4.3 Use Hedging Language

To make your claims more accurate, use hedging words and phrases. These include modal verbs (may, might, can), adverbs (mostly, often, likely), and phrases (appears to be, suggests that). For example, instead of the absolute statement, “The virus is widespread in central Asia,” a more cautious version is “The virus appears to be widespread in central Asia.”

1.5 Be Clear

Clarity in writing means structuring your sentences so that the reader can follow your ideas effortlessly. Clear writing is characterized by simple sentence structures, strong verbs, and a logical flow of information.

1.5.1 Avoid Nominalization

Nominalization is the process of turning a verb or an adjective into a noun (e.g., investigate becomes investigation, effective becomes effectiveness). Overusing nominalizations, especially as the subject of a sentence with a weak verb like “to be,” makes writing dense and abstract. To improve clarity, turn the noun back into its verb form. Instead of “An investigation of the material was performed by the team,” write “The team investigated the material.”

1.5.2 Avoid Passive Voice (Usually)

In the active voice, the subject of the sentence performs the action (e.g., “The researcher conducted the experiment”). In the passive voice, the subject receives the action (e.g., “The experiment was conducted by the researcher”). The active voice is generally more direct, concise, and vigorous. However, the passive voice is sometimes appropriate, such as when describing research methods (“The samples were heated to 100°C”) or when the actor is unknown or unimportant.

1.5.3 Make Verbs Show Action

Strong, active verbs make your writing more engaging and clear. Over-reliance on forms of the verb “to be” (is, are, was, were) can lead to dull and wordy prose. Revise sentences to use verbs that show direct action. For example, “The airline service that is provided by commercial carriers is extremely poor” is weaker than “Commercial air carriers tend to provide poor service.”

1.5.4 Use Actors or Concrete Nouns for Subjects

Sentences are easiest to understand when the subject is the “actor” performing the action.

• Avoid Expletives: Phrases like There is/are and It is are called expletives. They delay the true subject of the sentence. Instead of “There are three ways to solve this problem,” rewrite it as “This problem has three solutions.”
• Avoid Isolated Demonstrative Pronouns: Pronouns like this, that, these, and those can be ambiguous when they stand alone. To ensure clarity, follow the pronoun with a noun. Instead of “This is important to consider,” specify what “This” refers to: “This idea is important to consider.”
• Avoid Gerundial Phrases: A gerund (an “-ing” verb acting as a noun) phrase as a subject can be wordy. Recasting the sentence with a clear actor often improves clarity. For example, “Eating uncooked horse meat can cause health problems with students” is clearer as “If students eat uncooked horse meat, they can have health problems.”

1.5.5 Place Subjects and Verbs Close Together

For a sentence to be readable, the reader must be able to easily identify its core components: the subject and the verb. Separating them with long clauses or phrases forces the reader to hold information in their memory, making the sentence difficult to parse. Restructure sentences to keep the subject and its verb close together.

1.6 Be Careful with I, We, and You

The use of personal pronouns in academic writing varies by discipline, but some general principles apply.

1.6.1 How to Use “I”

In many fields, it is now acceptable to use “I” to describe your own research actions or to guide the reader.

• Use “I” to state research steps: “I collected and compiled the results.”
• Use “I” to state your intentions: “In this chapter, I will review the literature.”
• Do not use “I” to state personal opinions. Phrases like “I think that…” weaken your argument because academic claims should be based on evidence, not belief. Instead of “I think it is likely that…”, write “Educators are likely to use…”.

1.6.2 How to Use “We”

The pronoun “we” should be used precisely.

• Use “we” to refer specifically to yourself and your co-authors: “As researchers, we found that…”
• Do not use “we” to refer vaguely to yourself and the reader or to society in general. This can sound presumptuous. Instead of “We can stop obesity in our society…”, state the agent of the action directly: “Moderate physical activity can stop obesity.”

1.6.3 How to Use “You”

The pronoun “you” directly addresses the reader and is considered too informal for most academic writing. It creates a conversational tone that undermines objectivity. Always replace “you” with a more formal, third-person construction. For example, instead of “You can see the results in Table 3,” write “Table 3 shows the results.”